Should College Athletes Be Paid - 971 Words

College is about getting an education and creating a better future for yourself, not about making money. Nowadays some college athletes think they re all that and should be paid for the sport they play. It seem to be that there forgetting that they already get to go to college for a discounted price or in some cases for free. College athletes think they should get paid for all there services they provide to the school and the revenue they bring in. First, how are colleges going to pay the athletes? College sports may bring in a lot of money but not everyone knows where all that money goes. Second, every athlete will expect to be paid. We all know some sports bring in more money then others. How fair is it going to be when the tennis players are making sufficiently less then the football players. Lastly, they re already getting paid. Thats what there scholarship is for, it pays part of the student athletes tuition or for it all. So there is no need to pay them since there getting an e ducation out of it. First, college is about earning an education not money. If the NCAA starts letting colleges pay there athletes it will defeat the purpose of them going to school. It will discourage kids from finish and getting a degree because they ll already be making the money they want to make when there out of college. An estimated 18.2 million people enrolled in college in 2007. There are over 460,000 NCAA student athletes, that play in 23 different sports. More then 8Show MoreRelatedShould College Athletes Be Paid?1578 Words   |  7 PagesAshay Mehta Nou Per 8 Should College Athletes Be Paid? One of the hottest debates in the sports industry is if college athletes should be paid. If you want to pay these athletes, how would the college determine the dollar amount that should be paid? Should the basketball team make more than the football team? Should the the soccer team be paid as well? Cheerleading? Chess team? Should everyone on the team get a salary? What if your college is good at football and your basketball team is awfulRead MoreShould College Athletes Be Paid?1398 Words   |  6 Pagesbelieve that college athletes at the highest performing schools are better treated than others. Although they do not get paid, they do receive some benefits for being athletes that other students would not get. One advantage for playing a sport is access to scholarships that some schools reserve for their athletes. Depending on the school and the athlete’s performance, money towards tuition is often given. Only some schools are willing to grant â€Å"full-ride† scholar ships for certain athletes. AccordingRead MoreShould College Athletes Be Paid?1289 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout the years college sports have been about the love of the game, filled with adrenaline moments. However, the following question still remains: Should college athletes get paid to play sports in college? Seemingly, this debate has been endless, yet the questions have gone unanswered. The National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) plays a vital role in this debate. The NCAA is a billion dollar industry, but yet sees that the athlete should get paid for their hard work and dedicationRead MoreShould College Athletes Be Paid?1334 Words   |  6 Pagesrising to the surface is â€Å"Should college athletes be paid?†. This has become a burning question. The NCAA is a multibillion-dollar industry, that makes millions, if not billions, in revenue. Yet it’s still maintains the non-profit status meaning that the industry is not set on making a profit and none of the revenue that is made is distributed to its members, managers, or officers. While most players who play in college sports are under a scholarship, that pays for the college tuition, books, and housingRead MoreShould College Athletes Be Paid?1364 Words   |  6 PagesHave you paid attention to all of the news that has been surfacing about collegiate sports lately? It is a big topic now days in the world of sports on weather college athletes should be getting paid to play sports. College athletics have gained great popularity of the past few decades, and have brought schools lots of revenue. A lot of college athletes think they should be getting paid for their services they do for their school. College sports like basketball and football generate over six billionRead MoreShould College Athletes Be Paid?1130 Words   |  5 PagesWhat college athlete would not want to be paid to play the sport that he or she loves? The real question is, though, should college athletes be paid fo r their roles in a college’s athletics? They are many points to each side of this recent controversial topic, which is why this has been made into such a hot debate in the past couple of years. As of right now, these athletes are not getting paid, but many of them truly believe that they should. Others believe that they already are being paid throughRead MoreShould College Athletes Be Paid?986 Words   |  4 PagesPaying the College Athlete The college athlete has steadily grown in popularity in the United States over the span of the past decades. Monetarily speaking, this increased publicity has been extremely beneficial for National Athletic Association (NCAA) and all the colleges involved in athletics which has sparked the dispute of whether or not the athlete should be paid for their hard work and dedication on the field and to their school or if the athletic scholarship is more than enough. College athletesRead MoreShould College Athletes Be Paid?1239 Words   |  5 PagesLindsey Simmerman Speech 102 T/Th 1:00-2:15 October 25, 2016 Should college athletes be paid to play? Specific Purpose: To persuade the class to agree with my stance on paying college athletes to play sports Thesis: College football is the hours players spend practicing and performing, the number of injuries the players face, and the persona these athletes must portray every day all the while watching their schools, coaches, and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) get all the compensationRead MoreCollege Athletes Should Be Paid1254 Words   |  6 PagesSome college athletic departments are as wealthy as professional sports teams. The NCAA has an average annual revenue of $10.6 billion dollars. College athletes should be paid because of the amount of revenue that they bring to their college. Each individual college should pay its athletes based on how much revenue they bring to the college in which they attend. The colleges that win their Division title, their Conference title, or the National championship, give bonuses to the Head coach of thatRead MoreCollege Athletes Should Not Be Paid1558 Words   |  7 Pagesstudent-athletes participate in a variety of different s ports, and currently they do not receive paychecks for their performances. College athletics have attained an extensive popularity increase among Americans over the past few decades. This has resulted into increased revenues for the National Collegiate Athletic Association [NCAA] and the participating colleges, which has fuelled the debate of whether or not college athletes should collect an income. College athletes should not be paid to play

The State Of The Lebanese Curriculum Education Essay Free Essays

string(238) " to divisions and wars been what the best math course of study for the twenty-first century is, confirms the incontrovertible position that when political relations intervene in instruction worldwide, the good intended messages are lost\." On Tuesday April 18, 1996 Israeli 155mm mortars shelled UNIFIL ‘s Fiji BATT compound in the small town of Qana few kilometres south E of Tyre in Southern Lebanon. Around 800 civilians had taken safety at the base. The organic structures of 102 Arab civilian work forces, adult females and kids were shattered to pieces. We will write a custom essay sample on The State Of The Lebanese Curriculum Education Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now Many similar accidents had occurred in the past, but this one was different. It triggered protests and presentations against the Israeli ground forces which has been busying Lebanon since March 14, 1978. During and since these events, the Lebanese acted as united and cohesive people, fighting to make the same end of release, and to bask its fruits – a free and incorporate state. Four old ages subsequently, the Israeli military personnels moved out of the country and May 25, 2000, was declared a national vacation in jubilation of opposition and release. Each twelvemonth, activities and visits are paid to the grave of the Qana slaughter victims, in memorialization of the 18th of April. Crowds of citizens, intellectuals and pupils from different countries of Lebanon visit the sufferer ‘ graveyard in Qana on the said juncture. The purpose is to supply approaching coevalss with cognition bases, good for the building of a hereafter rich in its national didactic lessons, peculiarly the national battle heroic poem against business. As a Lebanese, I truly acknowledge the function the Lebanese have ever played in engaging a war against the business of our land and resources. However, I am critical of the Lebanese course of study which has been meaningless and non built on facets and issues of the Lebanese world. I am even more critical of the insensitive and unresponsive nature of the math course of study we teach and survey, at least in the schools and universities in Lebanon, which is inactive and does n’t experience anything of its milieus. There is no uncertainty about the extent of harm caused by many old ages of business in our instruction in Lebanon. Most significantly we are non able to cover with Western mathematics which is described by Bishop ( 1990 ) as â€Å" one of the most powerful arms in the infliction of Western civilization † . ( p. 52 ) Although the â€Å" business † of our land is an highly serious issue, the biggest danger we presently face is the battle for stoping the â€Å" business of our heads † because â€Å" The most powerful arm in the custodies of the oppressor is the head of the oppressed † ( Freire, 1970, p.14 ) . Since the development age was launched by Truman more than 50 old ages ago ( through declaring all societies outside the Western universe â€Å" developing † and, therefore, in demand of â€Å" aid † to â€Å" develop † them ) , mathematics instruction, development plans, and scientific cognition have been the chief tools used in interrupting the dorsum of societies. I was born in Beirut, Lebanon. Except for a few old ages when I had to travel out and work, I have lived all my life in Lebanon. When I was born, the Gallic system of Education was used because, for some clip, we have been colonized by France. After 1968, the British and American course of study became the course of study in schools. Since 2000, and after the terminal of the civil war in Lebanon, a so called â€Å" Lebanese new course of study † has been in the procedure of being developed. The intent of this paper is to cast some visible radiation on the Lebanese mathematics curriculum from a socio political position and to foreground some issues that defined and confined the Lebanese experience of learning math in schools. Specifically, I would wish to analyze what â€Å" business of heads † means in mathematics course of study and besides how â€Å" business † is reflected in the history of mathematics instruction in Lebanon. My peculiar attractive force to the impression of â€Å" business † lies in the fact that our heads have been controlled in Lebanon by restricting the options and options in how mathematics was taught and learned in the yesteryear. I am cognizant of this fact because of my past experience as both a pupil and instructor of mathematics in Lebanese schools every bit good as in other schools in the Middle East. We have been directed and driven so that we are unable to see possible options and options in both our instruction and acquisition of mathematics. The nature of mathematics learning has been such that pupils are non encouraged to talk up and show their different ( and sometimes opposing ) points of position and to admit the right of others to take his/her ain point of position. OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS IN LEBANON In Lebanon ( besides true in many topographic points particularly the developing or Third World Countries ) , we are committed to a position of mathematics as a scientific discipline that is absolute and unconditioned. We have considered mathematics to be a complete system stand foring nonsubjective, ageless truths. In his chapter, Math, Culture and Authority, Fasheh ( 1997 ) excellently gives a vivid, thick description of how math, in Third universe states, â€Å" aˆÂ ¦.is normally taught as a set of regulations and expressions that pupils have to memorise, and a set of problems-usually absurd to students- that they must work out † ( p.275 ) . This is every bit true for the Lebanese schoolroom and Lebanese course of study which is extremely compartmentalized and decontextualized. Teachers are the exclusive authorization in the schoolroom every bit good as the major beginning of mathematical cognition dictated as a set of nonnegotiable regulations and processs that challe nge topographic point and clip. In short, mathematics course of study is considered as the unquestionable hegemony which is to be followed and respected by both pupils and instructors. Reflecting on the province of the field, a closer expression at the history of how findings from international proving led many states to oppugn the substance of their school course of study and how this testing has led to divisions and wars been what the best math course of study for the twenty-first century is, confirms the incontrovertible position that when political relations intervene in instruction worldwide, the good intended messages are lost. You read "The State Of The Lebanese Curriculum Education Essay" in category "Essay examples" Possibly a well known illustration is the California math Wars where terrible diminution in the sum of educational budgets made it more purposive the usage of standards-based appraisals as a motivation for acquiring more support, the beginning being private organisations. RETHINKING MATHEMATICAL KNOWLEDGE: ETHNOMATHEMATICS â€Å" A common misconception in the instruction of math has been, and still is, the belief that math can be taught efficaciously and meaningfully without associating it to civilization or to the single pupil † ( Fasheh, 1997, P. 281 ) . Extensive research acknowledges the function that civilization dramas in act uponing the manner people see things and understand constructs. This, and non the trouble of the topic, impacted the position that math is nonmeaningful, stiff and beyond one ‘s apprehension. â€Å" Math can be used to emphasize one ‘s ain civilization with its particular and beautiful features. At the same clip, math can be used to do one aware of the drawbacks in one ‘s ain civilization and attempt to get the better of them † . ( Fasheh, 1997, P. 284 ) . My ain experience, and the experience of many others that I knew or read about, made me progressively believe in the sociopolitical facet of math as a tool to stamp down and rule minorities in the universe. Mathematicss has played an of import portion in globalisation ( English, 2002 ) . First, the topic itself is a merchandise of centuries of cultural exchange between East and West. In the head of many, it has achieved a position of an international linguistic communication independent of cultural association and context of development. The similarity of many mathematics instruction plans around the universe is partially a merchandise of this thought. Second, besides mathematics is seen as a ticket for draw a bead oning persons and states for technological, and therefore economic, development. This image of mathematics promotes the copying of course of study from the economically more successful to the less successful states. Further, the position of mathematics in the course of study is similar in many states where it is given a particular importance, 2nd merely, if non equal, to linguistic communication instruction. In many states mathematics is tied to scientific, technological, and therefore to economic development. Undoubtedly, these similarities have added ammo to the often-expressed position that mathematics is a â€Å" cosmopolitan linguistic communication † . These similarities have given rise to the term â€Å" planetary course of study † in mathematics instruction. The Role of Ethnomathematics From prehistoric ages, worlds have been roll uping cognition to react to their thrusts and demands. Such responses vary from part to part, from civilization to civilization ( Bishop, 1990 ) . Possibly the most of import philosophical difference between a traditional and an ethnomathematical position is that ethnomathematics recognizes, encourages, and awards the belief that all people do mathematics within their ain unique and personal context, and that this ability may take many signifiers ( Borba, 1997 ) . Indeed it emerges from within each person through their single interaction with their cultural and physical environment. It besides recognizes that everyone does mathematics, hence there is no such thing as a non-math individual – ethnomathematics is closely tied to issues of entree and equity ( Anderson, 1997 ) . In his chapter, Ethnomathemtics and Education, Borba envisions â€Å" ethnoknowledge † as the starting point for the pedagogical procedure in which pupils ‘ cognition is â€Å" compared with the ( ethno ) cognition developed by the academic subjects in a manner that this academic cognition can besides be seen as culturally bounded † ( p. 269 ) . Harmonizing to Borba, this study can be accomplished by pupils and instructors discoursing â€Å" the efficiency and relevancy of different sorts of cognition in different contexts † ( p. 269-270 ) . It is going clear in the heads of many the fact that instruction has transformed cognition and larning into trade goods, and pupils and instructors into consumers ( Kilpatrick, 2003 ) .I still retrieve how my female parent, run uping apparels for us and for our friends, used mathematics unwittingly in her pattern. She used to routinely take rectangles of cloth and with few measurings turn them into beautiful, absolutely fitted vesture. The mathematics she was utilizing was beyond my comprehension. Sing her mathematics in context made me understand my mathematics in context, the context of intent, significance, and power. I feel that my female parent was much freer than me. She learned by detecting, making, reflecting, associating, and bring forthing. She constructed her ain apprehension. In contrast, I was an impersonator, work outing jobs, most of which have been solved for a trillion times, in tiring repeat in schools around the universe for the past 100 old ages at least. While sh e was invariably involved in the human facet of math, my cognition and thought were confined chiefly to text editions, which I studied and taught. Detecting my female parent ‘s math and cognition helped me detect how deeply my cognition was entrenched in text edition during my surveies, and during my instruction. As a consequence of colonial instruction, in Lebanon and in other Third universe states as good, we come to see mathematics by and large as a merchandise of the West. The addled course of study organ transplant -during the 1960’s- from the extremely industrialized states to ‘Third World ‘ states reinforced this image. Although, during the 1970 ‘s and 1980 ‘s, there emerged among instructors and mathematics pedagogues in developing states, a turning opposition against the Eurocentrism, ( Powell A ; Frankenstein, 1997 ) , in Lebanon this misconception is accentuated due to the unstable political clime that swayed Middle East part up-to-date. What can be done? In an effort to reform our math instruction and acquisition, we are in the procedure of constructing a new math course of study which extremely acknowledges criterions put forth by NCTM. We are now, more than of all time, aware of the importance of stressing job posing/problem-solving attacks to larn, curriculum dialogue and incorporate course of study planning supported by appropriate appraisal schemes including non-competitive appraisal. I would wish to visualize that in the future our teaching method could be community – based and community focused and that it helps develop the pupils ‘ accomplishments in the defense mechanism, care and farther development of our rational heritage and civilization. The position and intent of math course of study is closely linked with the different socio-political ambiances that reign from one state to another. While we, as Lebanese, view math as an indispensable tool for release from the business of land and head, others see it as a agency to remain in front in the battle for political power. In Lebanon, now, we are fighting to specify ourselves through reflecting on our lives, and seeking to show that in every bit many signifiers as we have in our â€Å" dirts of civilizations, † and through discoursing what we do and what we are. In the concluding analysis, a chief issue is to specify ourselves or else be defined by others. How to cite The State Of The Lebanese Curriculum Education Essay, Essay examples

Immigration problem in the United Stated Essay Example For Students

Immigration problem in the United Stated Essay The first move stopping immigration decided by Congress was a law in 1862 restricting American vessels to transport Chineseimmigrants to the U.S. The Alien Contract Labor Laws of 1885, 1887, 1888, and 1891 restricted the immigration to the U.S. of people entering the country to work under contracts made before their arrival. Alien skilled laborers, under these laws, were allowed to enter the U.S. to work in new industries. By this time anti-immigrant felling rose with the flood of immigrants and in this period the anti-Catholic, anti-foreign political party the Know-Nothings, was After World War I a marked increase in racism and the growth of isolationist sentiment in the U.S. led to demands for further tight legislation. In 1921 a congressional act provided for a quota system for immigrants, which the number of aliens of any nationality admitted to the U.S. in a year could not exceed 3 percent of the number of foreign-born residents of that nationality living in the U.S. in 1910. Th is law applied to nations of Europe, the Middle East, Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Asian Russia, and certain islands in the Atlantic and Pacific. In the 1980s concern about the surge of illegal aliens into the U.S. has led Congress to pass legislation aimed at cutting illegal immigration. The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 allows most illegal aliens who have resided in the U.S. regularly since January 1, 1982, to apply for legal status. Also, the law prohibits employers from hiring illegal aliens and mandates penalties Debate over immigration and immigration policy is not new to the nations history. From time to time, Congress jarred legislation to control the flow of immigration. As immigration rises and hatred grows more laws will be implemented trying to release some of the pressure. Illegal immigration has some pros and cons. I will discuss the pros first and explain them briefly in order for you to get a better understanding of the position. It offers cheaper lab or to businesses. By not paying minimum wages to the workers who are willing to work for a lower price, this gives the business an edge over other competitors. Provides culture diversity in the united states. Bringing in immigrants gives more and different cultures to the U.S.. which can expand businesses to other fields of the world. Also giving people a more understanding of other cultures. Lowers the cost of products produced in the U.S. that we buy. If the businesses can produce products and services at a low price keeping there overhead low, then we as a consumer will also pay a lower price. Most illegals are skilled workers and helps run the economy. Other countries economy is also being helped. The workers bring money to their families out side of the U.S. which in mostcases the U.S. dollar has a higher value than their own. Experts disagree saying the cons of this issue out way the pros. Next I will discuss some cons and explain them briefly. Illegalimmigrants pay no tax. If they pay no taxes then how can we as a country pay for public services we as well as they do. Sending money out of our economy and sending it to their families abroad. If money is taken out of our economy it causes a monetary problem. this can cause an inaccurate account of money in circulation which might cause inflation. Lower wages. If an illegal is willing to work for under the minimum wage then the employer will not pay more for the job to any other employ. In fact might higher only illegals and take away jobs form legal residents who are willing to work. When illegals come to this country they do not get tested for diseases that might infect the population. Which can cause a healthproblem. Such as polio, tuberculosis and other forms of diseases. Illegals cost the states money, paying for education, health care, and other social services. In an already under funded programs they give these services a more heavy burden to deal with. Republicans have reached agreement among themselves on legislation designed to combat illegal immigration. But with their package facing delaying tactics from Senate Democrats and a veto from the president, they finished the week of Sept. 2 uncertain of their next move1 Republicans need to show we can govern,2 said bill sponsor Lamar Smith, R-Texas. We need to show we can pass good legislation.3 Dianne Feinstein (d-Calif.) called for tough and controversial enforcement measures, including imposing a toll on anyone entering the united states to raise revenues to beef up the Border patrol.4 Sen. Alan Simpson (R-Wyo.) one of senates leading authorities on immigration issues, also proposed a similar border tax ten years ago, but was defeat in senators fearing it would detour tourists.5Referring to the Democrats If they want to go home and do nothing about illegal immigration, thats a gross violation of what we should be doing,6 said Sen. Alan K. Simpson, R-Wyo., sponsor of the Senate bill. Sen. Edward M. Kennedy, D-Mass., and other Democrats on the Immigration Subcommittee said Republicans would have to choose between passing an immigration bill, or proving their ideological purity on the public school issue.7 Both democrats and republicans agree that illegal immigration should be dealt with. The problem is they cant agree on anyonepurposes given to them. The Democrats say it is the Republicans fault, the Republicans say it is the Democrats fault. With this type of finger pointing neither of them will gain a fast decisive action to resolve the problem. When it comes to illegal immigrants there are a lot of interest groups that have been involved in this issue. From businesses to governments agencies. First the businesses, especially in agriculture. Agriculture employs more undocu mented workers than any other industry in thecountry. Half of Californias 700,000 farm workers are estimated to be undocumented. Three decades ago, the percentage of foreign-born farm workers in California was 50 percent,8 the Chronicle stated. Now it Agriculture, however, is not the only industry with an insatiable need for the cheap labor provided by immigrants. Published by the Chronicle, a list of businesses fined by the INS in San Francisco includes a car rental company, construction firms, restaurants, clubs, a trucker, a travel agency and even a Protestant church.10 Everywhere one looks today, one sees immigrant workers cleaning rooms in hotels, mowing lawns in the suburbs, pumping gas in service stations, doing janitorial chores in countless workplaces, toiling in the garment industry and doing all sorts of temporary jobs. These business groups have a lot of interest in illegal immigration. They provide cheaper labor which cuts costs and causesbetter competition. Richard Rog ers, district director of the INS in Los Angeles, was quoted as saying: If we were to increase fines 75 to 80 percent, we would probably have a lot of people out of business.11 Government agencies are also involved. The new immigration legislation nearly doubles the size of the Border Patrol. In addition, National Guard and active-duty armed forces personnel are used more and more along the border. Local police forces are also being authorized to enforce immigration law, says Roberto Martinez of the American Friends Service Committees U.S./Mexico border program.12 Possible solutions to the problem. Faster citizens processing, helping illegals countrys economy such as NAFTA which is already in affect. Some suggest tamper proof residency cards, computerize the I.N.S., increases the number of boarder patrol agents, and build a wall around the U.S. and problem countries. There has been many suggestions made in dealing with this problem. The Gallegly bill is one of them. If ever complete d by House-Senate conferees, is likely to include several conditions already adopted in similar form by both chambers. As passed by the House and Senate, the bill would: Increase the number of border patrol agents by 1,000 each year between 1996 and 2000, roughly doubling the force to reach 10,000. Make it difficult for people caught trying to enter the United States illegally, or overstaying a visa, from being granted visas in the future. Establish pilot programs in which employers could electronically check the immigration status of their employees. Restrict public benefits for legal immigrants by increasing the time for which their sponsors are responsible for them. This section ispartially obtained by the welfare law, which denies benefits to many legal immigrants. Allows the deportation of legal immigrantswho illegally accepted public benefits for 12 months or more. Besides the Gallegly provision, which is in the House bill only, conferees face two other issues with major disag reements between the two The House would require that any family wishing to sponsor a legal immigrant earn at least twice the poverty rate. The Senatebill would require the family to earn an income one-fourth higherthan the poverty rate. The House bill would also make it much moredifficult to apply for political asylum, both for those who applyupon entry into the United States or for those already on U.S. soil. Immigration experts generally agree that the Clinton Administration has devoted more attention to immigration than either of its two Republican predecessors and he always has at least two reactions: his initial public statement (determined largely bypublic-opinion polls, which show support for restrictions), and then the actual policy (as determined by his advisors and the various Clinton proposed legislation that included expedited exclusion for frivolous asylum claimants, an increase in INS asylum personnel, and various anti-smuggling provisions. President Clintons record o n legal immigration. In June 1995, the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform, chaired by the late Barbara Jordan, recommended a modest cut in legal immigration and the elimination of some extended-family President Clinton immediately endorsed the recommendations as consistent with my own views and added that they are pro-family, pro-work, pro-naturalization.13 Clintons record on illegal immigration, since that is a major focus of his re-election campaign, particularly in California, a must-win state. Less than three months after taking office Clinton sent to Congress his Fiscal Year 1994 budget proposal for the Immigration and Naturalization Service, which included cutting 93 Border Patrol positions. President Clinton gave a speech in which he proclaimed that our borders leak like a sieve and urged that $45.1 million be spent to beef up the Border Patrol, including six hundred new agents.14 He failed to mention that the House had already approved an additional $60 million for the Bo rder Patrol, or that the Senate Appropriations Committee had approved an One of the Californias response to the problem was proposition 187. This proposition seeks to deny social services to illegals and their children. Pete Wilson, governor of California, announces his intention to file a suit against the federal government for its failure to control our nations borders.15 He claims that there are a million illegal residents in the city of Los Angles alone,and that since 1988 the taxpayers of California have spent more than $10 million in education, medical, and prison costs for illegal My personal opinion is not good for illegal immigrants. I believe that illegals should deal with their problems in their countries, instead of coming here and creating more problems. If there country has a poor economy then they should fix it. In the long runit would be good for their country, but I know this is easier said than done. The illegals that are already here should be deported. The term i llegal speaks for itself , that is what they are called illegals. Also they should not live and take up social services that legal residents use. Some people say They have the right to use these services they, pay sales tax and dont file income tax which in most cases the government owes them. Well I do not see it that way. I found that a majority of illegals that work here take the money out of the country and into there families in other countries. Most of their net income goes outside of the U.S. economy. My father came to this country over 30 years ago. He applied for a visa, which took him two years to get, complied with allregulations dealing with immigration to the U.S. After arriving to the U.S. he work hard to became a legal resident and finally a citizen, gaining all privileges of that citizenship. Why should others come and take those privileges while they come here illegally. copurtate EssayOut of the solutions given in section three the one I believe to be the best is the Gallegly bill. I believe that a tighter restriction with added border patrol would be the best and reasonable option. Building a wall with machine gun towers would be a greatdeterrent as in the old Germany, but I dont think thats Americas 1. Dan Carney, Social Policy Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, 9/7/96, Vol. 54 Issue 36, p2531. 2. Dan Carney, Social Policy Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, 9/7/96, Vol. 54 Issue 36, p2531. 3. Dan Carney, Social Policy Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, 9/7/96, Vol. 54 Issue 36, p2531. 4. Glenn F. Miller, Los Angles Times, 7/1/93,pA25. 5. Glenn F. Miller, Los Angles Times, 7/1/93,pA26. 6. Dan Carney, Social Policy Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, 9/7/96, Vol. 54 Issue 36, p2531. 7. Dan Carney, Social Policy Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, 9/7/96, Vol. 54 Issue 36, p2531. 8. Moises Sandoval ,National Catholic Reporter, 6/28/96, Vol. 32 9. Moises Sandoval ,National Catholic Reporter, 6/28/96, Vol. 32 10. Moises Sandoval ,National Catholic Reporter, 6/28/96, Vol. 32 11. Moises Sandoval ,National Catholic Reporter, 6/28/96, Vol. 32 12. Moises Sandoval ,National Catholic Reporter, 6/28/96, Vol. 32 Taylor, Monica. Workbook For Political science 5, Western Custom Conover, Ted. A Journey Through the Secret World of Americas Illegal Hutchinson, E. P. Legislative History of American Immigration Policy, Bontemps, Arna and Conroy, Jack. Anyplace But Here. Hill Wang, 1966. May, Charles Paul. The Uprooted. Westminster, 1976. Carney,Dan, Social Policy Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, Miller,Glenn F., Los Angles Times, 7/1/93,pA25. Sandoval, Moises, National Catholic Reporter, 6/28/96, Vol. 32 Issue Bibliography:

You Cant Have Everything, Where Would You Put It Hoarders free essay sample

You cant have everything, where would you put it? Hoarders Imagine you wake to find that your house is on fire. Most people can name the few possessions that are near and dear to their hearts that they would grab immediately before exiting their burning home. Imagine feeling that strongly about each and every single thing you possess, and now imagine that your home is so full of possessions that all that stuff actually prohibits you exiting in a safe and timely manner during any emergency situation, including a fire. Compulsive Hoarding Syndrome affects approximately 1. to 2 million people in the United States. It is hard to prepare the numbers of hoarders for statistics because of the debilitating shame the people who suffer from this mental illness feel, therefore, many are not even counted. It is also hard because there is not a consistent definition of Hoarding or Compulsive Hoarding Syndrome. We will write a custom essay sample on You Cant Have Everything, Where Would You Put It? Hoarders or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The term is used to describe a broad spectrum of behavioral abnormalities. The most commonly accepted definition is a person who acquires and fails to discard enormous amounts of possessions that are useless or of very ittle value to most people, the clutter imposes such an inconvenience that normal uses of most rooms are not able to be used for the designated purpose and the clutter causes much distress and limited functioning of the person with the syndrome. I wish to define the different types of hoarding, expose the dangers of hoarding, and explain some treatment options. According to the Journal of Anxiety Disorders, â€Å"little is known about onset and course of compulsive hoarding† (Grisham). There are several common types of hoarding. One is known as the frugal mentality hoarder who thinks that nothing should be wasted, my very own grandmother is one of this type. Next is the scarcity mentality hoarder who thinks only of if the depression returns (referring to the Great Depression of the late 1920s). Another is the frozen indecision hoarder who finds no decision easy. Ordinary hoarders possess primarily objects. Animal hoarders possess more animals that they are equipped to care for in their home, in some extreme cases it involves over 300 animals. Trash hoarders, also alled Syllogomania, possess things that most of think of as trash. There are many dangers created by compulsive hoarding disorder. One is the health hazards created by all the items in the home that can create an infestation of many types of bugs or even mold due to the lack of being able to properly clean around and under the mountains of possessions that are in the home. Some hoarders have been forced to live in a tent in their yard to escape the infestation of bed bugs that are impossible to properly exterminate in their cluttered home. Social Services have removed families from their homes due to mold growing amongst their many possessions. Injury is another common hazard in the home of a Hoarder. Injuries have been sustained from tripping and falling over the mounds of clutter. People have even been crushed to their death from so many items being stacked to the ceiling that unexpectedly fall crushing them to the point that they are unable to break free to call for help. Finally, the isolation that people who hoard usually suffer from creates a hazard to addressing more serious roblems like depression, suicidal thoughts, or even something as simple as a leaky gas line not being properly fixed due to the shame of letting a repairman in the house to fix it. Just like the common cold, there is no cure for compulsive hoarding. Although compulsive hoarding accompanies OCD in approxamately 25% to 40% of individuals diagnosed â€Å"Traditional treatments for OCD have not proven to be effective with compulsive hoarders† ( Saxena). Treatment includes â€Å"Intensive multimodal treatment found effective in pilot studies following a course of up to one year† (Saxena). This treatment focused on discarding, organizing, preventing incoming clutter and introducing alternative behaviors. Compulsive hoarding is a dangerous, devastating disorder that is not well understood, lacks a consistent definition, has incomplete statistics and is difficult to treat. Works Cited Grisham, J. R. , R. O. Frost, G. Steketee, H. Kim, S. Hood. (2006). Age of Onset of Compulsive Hoarding. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 20, 675-686. Saxena, Sanjaya and Karron M. Maidment. (2004). Treatment of Compulsive Hoarding. JCLP/In Session, 60,(11), 1143-1154.

What Is the Difference Between Manga and Comics

What Is the Difference Between Manga and Comics How Do Manga and American Comics Differ? Both American comics and Japanese manga are designed to entertain the reader. However, they are totally different. The main difference is in their art style: while manga tends to be more stylized, American comics are usually realistic. Also, they vary in their genres, cost, creation, size, presentation and target audience. Let’s Take a Closer Look at Manga vs Comics’ Comparison Color Whereas American comics are almost always designed in color, manga is more often black and white. Of course, readers appreciate the efforts put into coloring the comics, but many find themselves more engaged in reading manga. However, there is something more affected by the color, which will be covered below. Presentation The processes of creation and presentation are also things that represent the difference between manga and comics. As it was just mentioned, manga is published in black and white. But what is also remarkable is that manga is printed on cheap paper like the kind that is used for newsprint. On the contrary, American comics are usually published in full color. There are also some comic books that deserve a nice treatment, which cannot be said about manga. Size If you look at both, you will notice that manga books come generally in a smaller size than western comic books, about 1/2 or 1/3 the size of American comics, in phonebook-sized magazines. But at the same time, manga books are thick and can include over a hundred pages, whereas American comics are much thinner and have about 30-40 pages. The majority of manga books can be found and read online. When we consider the page count, manga books have much in common with graphic novels, which are simply collections of monthly American comics. At the same time, manga books have far bigger page count and an entire manga may consist of thousands of pages. Creation Western comics are predominantly created in assembly-line fashion. That means the following: the writer first writes the story, a letterer adds dialogs, a sketcher draws sketches, an inker inks them and the colorist fills in the color. One of great examples is Batman. Some comic books do not have enough visual consistency, but readers usually do not care whether the book has their favorite superhero in it. With regard to manga, it is almost always created by a single person who does all the chores. Some manga writers have assistants, but they do not do any other work except inking pages. Also, it should be mentioned that manga production in Japan has much bigger scope than comics’ production in USA and makes up about 40% of all published magazines and books in Japan. Moreover, about 40% of the Japanese movies are anime, which makes up the motion equivalent of manga. While American comics are created predominantly for children, the Japanese ones are designed for a far wider audience. Manga is published in magazines and journals for people of all ages. Storyline and Price The storyline in Japanese comics moves a bit faster as these books have higher page count. Also, there is less dialogue and fewer panels there. Manga books’ prices are usually higher than that of an average paperback novel. Angle Frequently used bird’s and worm’s eye views are typical for manga. Together with motion lines, the actions appear more captivating to the reader. Also, it is notable that manga artists usually create higher villains, whereas American comics’ heroes are almost always similar heights to the villains. Cultural Differences Manga has a significantly slower pace and places less emphasis on action. Mangaka – people who create manga – do not hurry with their storytelling like American comics’ writers. Therefore, manga requires more patience from the audience. As a result, the reader gets more gratifying payoff when the actions in the story do actually gain steam. Also, whereas in American comics we can see full-page spreads dedicated to actions, in manga there are full-page spreads dedicated to emotional reactions. Besides, when we talk about manga vs American comics, it should be also mentioned that the panel layout differs in both: in manga, the panels are read from right to left. Thematic Differences Although during last few years the western comics have explored some dark topics, they are still mostly known for its family-friendly superhero genre. Manga, on the contrary, is comfortable exploring risquà © material like sex, violence and scatology. For us, it may seem weird, but there is actually a cultural reason for such freedom in exploring these concepts. In Japan, most people affiliate to Shinto and Buddhism,   which are the religions that do not equate sex with shame. For this reason, Japanese are usually more liberal in exploring sexuality than the Americans. Characters One more significant manga vs comics difference is that manga’s characters tend to constantly become stronger, whereas the comics’ heroes usually retain their same level of strength, very rarely becoming stronger. If a hero in an American comic book gets stronger, generally such a change does not last too long. For example, let’s look at Superman and Goku. There is a multiplicity of iterations of Superman, but just one of Goku. Dragonball has had spin-offs, yet there does not exist any alternate of Goku. Now, if you would pit both characters against one another when they debuted, Goku would hardly win. Now flash forward to where they are now. Goku has become far stronger over the years and now he would easily overpower Superman. What is also interesting to point out is the longevity of characters in both Japanese and American comics. One of the good illustrations to look at in western comics is Captain America. He first appeared in 1941, and multiple fans still buy comics and watch movies with this hero. Such heroes and their stories tend to be refreshed, rebooted, and redone for better. What is meant to say, American comics’ heroes never seem to die, while in manga, stories eventually have a logical conclusion, and may get some spin-off instead. Style Differences For American comics, it is typical to center the establishing shot with an aim to occupy the first scene in the comic. In manga, on the contrary, the establishing shot is placed at the bottom of the page. Besides, in manga you can see more of a cinematic style that portrays heroes in dramatic angles more in synchronization with a film than comics. In manga, all the scenes are structured frame-by-frame and represent snapshots of the actions and in synchronization with dialogues. In American comics, stories and visuals do not necessarily synchronize with dialogues and visual actions. This is one more difference that should be noted between comics vs manga. Manga in Japan is not considered a kind of entertainment just for kids and teenagers like that of western comics, but manga books are published in three major genres: Shonen manga (for boys), Shojo manga (for girls) and Hentai (for adults). Shonen manga books typically include much action and adventure, whereas Shojo manga are mostly about love and relationships. However, these genres are not limited to their respective audiences; actually, both can fascinate anyone who reads it. As for Hentai, such books are generally adult-themed and contain risquà © stories. Hentai manga books are designed strictly for adults. Eventually, it is hard to determine a strict position, which kind of comics is better. This topic can be argued for an entire day, but at last, does it really matter? The readers can simply enjoy both American comics and Japanese manga, choose elements they like and blend them. Both western and Japanese comics are filled with fascinating stories, strong themes, and offer great opportunities to spend some time.

History and Geography of Guantanamo Bay

History and Geography of Guantanamo Bay Located four hundred miles from the mainland United States, Guantanamo Bay in the Guantanamo Province of Cuba is the oldest overseas American naval base. It is also the only naval base in a communist country and the only one that has no political affiliation with the United States. With 45 miles of naval infrastructure, Guantanamo Bay is often called the Pearl Harbor of the Atlantic. Due to its remote location and jurisdiction, Guantanamo Bay has been deemed by one United States government official as the â€Å"legal equivalent of outer space†. History of Guantanamo Bay At the wake of the 20th century, the U.S. formally leased this 45 square mile parcel from newly independent Cuba to use as a fueling station. The lease was renewed in 1934 under Fulgencio Batista and President Franklin D. Roosevelts administration. The agreement required consent of both parties should either want to withdraw; that is, reconsider U.S. occupation of the base. Diplomatic relations between the U.S. and Cuba were severed in January of 1961. In hopes the U.S. will forfeit the base, Cuba no longer accepts the $5,000 annual American rent. In 2002, Cuba officially requested that Guantanamo Bay be returned. Interpretation of the 1934 mutual consent agreement differs, causing frequent squabbles between the two countries. In 1964, Fidel Castro cut off the base’s water supply in response to the U.S. government fining Cubans for fishing near Florida. As a result, Guantanamo Bay is self-sufficient and produces its own water and electricity. The naval base itself is divided into two functioning areas on either side of the bay. The east side of the bay is the main base, and the airfield occupies the west side. Today, both sides of the base’s 17-mile fence line are patrolled by U.S. Marines and Cuban militiamen. During the 1990s, social upheaval in Haiti brought over 30,000 Haitian refugees to Guantanamo Bay. In 1994, the base provided humanitarian services to thousands of migrants during Operation Sea Signal. That year, civilian employees and their families were evacuated from the base to accommodate for the influx of migrants. The migrant population climbed upwards of 40,000. By 1996, the Haitian and Cuban refugees had filtered out, and family members of the military were allowed to return. Ever since, Guantanamo Bay sees a small, steady migrant population of about 40 people each year. Geography and Land Use of Guantanamo Bay The bay itself is a 12-mile long north-south indentation and is six miles across. Islands, peninsulas, and coves can be found on the east side of the bay. The Guantanamo Valley lies west of the bay along the Sierra Maestra. The lowlands on the west side are adorned in mangroves. Its flat nature makes it ideal for Guantanamo’s airfield. Similar to many American towns, Guantanamo Bay is furnished with subdivisions, baseball fields, and chain restaurants. Roughly 10,000 people reside there, 4,000 of which are in the U.S. military. The remaining residents are family members of the military, local Cuban support staff, and laborers from neighboring countries. There is a hospital, dental clinic, and a meteorologic and oceanographic command station. In 2005, four 262-foot tall wind turbines were constructed on John Paul Jones Hill, the highest point on the base. During the windiest months, they provide the base with about a quarter of the power it consumes. Since the sharp population rise in 2002 of military and support personnel, Guantanamo Bay boasts a golf course and an outdoor theater. There is also a school, but with so few kids that sports teams play against groups of local firefighters and hospital workers. Separated from the base by cacti and elevated landforms, residential Guantanamo Bay bears much similarity to suburban America. Guantanamo Bay as Detention Center Its true nature and inner workings are somewhat elusive to the American public and are under constant scrutiny. One can only speculate on the future of Guantanamo Bay and as history suggests, its utility and habitation are ever changing.

Plato and Rousseaus Commentary on Constitutional Breakdown Essay

Plato and Rousseaus Commentary on Constitutional Breakdown - Essay Example Plato thus emphasized that democracy, just like oligarchy, draws a rift between the rich and the poor (Rosen, 2008). With the perceiving the rich as plotting against them, they seek protection through rallying their support behind a champion. With the increasing support of the mob, such a champion is likely to turn into a tyrant. For Plato, the law ought to be a defining factor for all the actions of individuals within a certain jurisdiction and that people have to lose their freedom for the sake of gaining peace and harmony. To prevent degeneration of the constitution, Plato postulates that the law has to become the master of the government and the government to be its slave, so that every person is answerable to the law. In addition, Plato suggests that for a constitution to be effective then the government should be run by the best (aristocratic), so that the leaders are highly wise and that they receive proper training concerning how a state should be run. Contrary to Plato’s view, Rousseau believes that constitutions that fail to recognize the individual moral responsibility of the citizens is bound to degenerate with time. As such, for any constitutional coercions to be justified, they must be based on certain general agreements among the citizens. Rousseau observed that constitutional governments were driven by an assumption that citizens within a given state, regardless of their divisions in terms of personal opinions, remain firmly in agreement concerning the desire to share the same political existence.

Total Quality Model and Methodologies Paper Essay

Total Quality Model and Methodologies Paper - Essay Example Did the Japanese finally find the secret to unlocking the productive powers of a usually vast complement of workers by harmonizing their thoughts and activities into one single cohesive unit Many of the management specialists at the time were duly impressed, going so far as to equate the advent of TQM to, first, the Industrial Revolution and, much later, the communication revolution. TQM was enthusiastically adopted in the US in the 1960s, followed by Europe in the 1980s, where the concept was further enriched in both areas with new strategies based on local needs and requirements. (Navantara, P.) TQM, one of its technical definitions goes, is a way of managing people and business processes in an organization to fulfill and satisfy the customer's needs at every stage. It also behooves the company to handle its suppliers and other business partners in the same strategic manner. The basic TQM foundations, as conceptualized by the Japanese and given additional features for relevance in the US and Europe consist of people, processes and systems, in that order of importance. As indicated, a company starts to carry out a TQM program by training and reorienting its people on the quality path it has set for itself. The next step is to improve or overhaul, if necessary, the entire processes and systems of production to achieve the desired quality of the company's output. For TQM to work then, there should be a high measure of training, ethics, teamwork, integrity and trust among the organization's people. They should look up to a leader and communication should be open at all times between the boardroom and the shop floor and across the whole company. TQM also calls for a system of reward and recognition to motivate employees. (Wilkinson, A., Marchington, M. & Daleuman, B.) All this looks good on paper but it soon become evident that the management model is too complicated, costly and takes too long to gestate. (Valasquez, J., 2000) This puts TQM out of reach of struggling companies or those tittering into bankruptcy, which are supposed to be the ones in more urgent need of more effective management systems to bail them out. Das Amitav (2005) points out that TQM operates on the basic concept that quality is the sole concern of the production and quality control departments. As a consequence, it is overly focused on defect reduction and process improvement and less on generating income to improve the bottom line. The strategy also tends to be confined to quality circles and some industrial engineers. The more ideal method, Amitav believes, should enshrine quality achievement in the hearts of all the people involved and defect reduction and process improvement should secondary importance to strategies improving the bottom line. Lack of leadership is another perceived drawback of TQM, when common sense dictates that the leader should work hands-on instead of just hand out orders. For this reason, I strongly recommend the Six Sigma model, the latest byword in management concepts that is grabbing the attention previously reserved for TQM. The Six Sigma approach is tailor-made for our company, which is mainly a manufacturing concern. Not surprisingly, the Japanese were again the

Future MBA Cartoon Essay Example for Free

Future MBA Cartoon Essay Ambiguity: Friend or Foe Often times during our earlier years, we stumble upon ‘loopholes’ within our language. We then take these ‘loopholes’ and mend them to our advantage. These ‘loopholes’ that I am referring to are words that have many different meanings, however actions can also be grouped into this. Much like the cartoon, â€Å"Future MBA† illustrated by Mike Shapiro. In this cartoon you see two students sitting at their desks, both with paper and pencil on the desk. The teacher is standing in front of them and one can only be brought to the assumption that these children were either taking a test or doing an assignment that was meant to be finished solo. However, this cartoon depicts that these students did not follow those instructions by giving us the text, â€Å"We weren’t cheating. We were consulting.† With this text we are given that the children are looking for a way out of punishment by re-characterizing their obvious but ambiguous actions by altering what the teachers perception of it was with that of something that is not detestable, although rather questionable. Cheating is the sharing of answers or ideas that one person may have and is given to another. With the idea that there was no cheating or answer exchanging going on but rather discussing possible outcomes, or consulting in this case, these children are trying to pose the idea that they have done no wrong. This happens more often than you would think. Unfortunately, when these do occur it is not always in a less harmful situation such as a classroom setting over a test or assignment. This often happens in large business and even our government. Through the use of euphemisms you take a word that is particularly disliked and exchange it with a word that has more appeal. On the news for example when there are times of war and there are casualties. The word casualties take the place of saying â€Å"four women, seven children, and six men were killed’. It can be used in this scenario where emotions could get the better of the situation and cause an uproar. However, is this right? Has our language helped us or betrayed us by making it so easy to  cleverly deceive our minds from what is really going on? Then again, in situations it can help ease the pain of loosing a loved one, and explaining it to a child. For instance, instead of telling a child that their father was decapitated i n a car crash and is dead, we can tell the child that their father has passed away. In this case it is our ally. It is hard to determine whether something of this magnitude is beneficial or ultimately malicious. I can see both sides of this, but you cannot get rid of one without the other. They are two sides of the same coin. The only thing I can leave with you is that you cannot have the use of one without the other. However, I can tell you that you have to choose how to use this. Personally, I choose to use this for the greater good not to deceive others or try to confuse them about what is really going on. Works Cited Shapiro, Mike. â€Å"Future MBA† Reading Literature and Writing Argument. Pearson Education, Inc, 2008.

Can We Stop School Violence? Essay -- Mass School Shootings Essays

Violence in American schools is escalating faster than a speeding bullet. Society demands that schools be safe for our children, yet recent events indicate we need to escalate our efforts to prevent violence in schools at the same time address violence in the larger community. Crises involving sudden violence in schools are traumatic in large measure because they are unexpected. The shrapnel from bullets fired on school grounds have a way of touching the life's of many. In the wake of such a crisis, members of the school community are asked-and ask themselves-what could have been done to prevent it. Coordinated school efforts can help. But the solution does not just rest in the schools. Together we must develop solutions that are community-wide and coordinated, that include schools, families, courts, law enforcement, community agencies, representatives of the faith community, business, and the broader community. Wilmer Cody, Kentucky Commissioner of Education (Dwyer et. al.) To make our schools safer, everyone can and must pitch in-- teachers, parents, students, policy makers, law enforcement officers, business managers, faith leaders, civic leaders, youth workers, and other concerned community residents. Everyone who cares about children cares about ending violence. It is time to break the silence that too often characterizes even the most well-meaning school communities. Research and expert-based information is available for school communities to use in developing and strengthening programs that can prevent crises. School safety is everyone's job. Each of us can do something to help solve the problem. It's a problem we all must work together to solve. The Department of Education and the Department of Justice warns... ... Ph.D., Parachini A., Hernandez F., Ph.D., Cody M., Ph.D., Davis D. "From Words to Weapons, the Violence Surrounding our Schools." American Civil Liberties Union of Southern California. 22 April 2001 <http://www.aclu-sc.org/school.html> Dwyer, K., Osher, D., and Warger, C. (1998). "Early warning, timely response: A guide to safe schools." Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. 22 April 2001 <http://www.cecp.air.org/guide/guidetext.htm> Kaufman P., Chen X., Choy S.P., Chandler K.A., Chapman C.D., Rand M.R., and Ringel C. NCES 99-251/NCJ-1 72215 "1999 Annual Report on School Safety." Washington, DC: 1998 U.S. Departments of Education and Justice. 21 April 2001 <http://www.ed.gov/offices/oese/sdfs/news.html> National Crime Prevention Council. Washington, DC "Stopping School Violence."Â   20 April 2001 http://www.ncpc.org/2schvio.htm

Gendered Media

Article 7 Gendered Media: The Influence of Media on Views of Gender Julia T. Wood Department of Communication, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill times more often than ones about women (â€Å"Study Reports Sex Bias,† 1989), media misrepresent actual proportions of men and women in the population. This constant distortion tempts us to believe that there really are more men than women and, further, that men are the cultural standard. THEMES IN MEDIA Of the many influences on how we view men and women, media are the most pervasive and one of the most powerful.Woven throughout our daily lives, media insinuate their messages into our consciousness at every turn. All forms of media communicate images of the sexes, many of which perpetuate unrealistic, stereotypical, and limiting perceptions. Three themes describe how media represent gender. First, women are underrepresented, which falsely implies that men are the cultural standard and women are unimportant or invisible. Sec ond, men and women are portrayed in stereotypical ways that reflect and sustain socially endorsed views of gender.Third, depictions of relationships between men and women emphasize traditional roles and normalize violence against women. We will consider each of these themes in this section. Underrepresentation of Women A primary way in which media distort reality is in underrepresenting women. Whether it is prime-time television, in which there are three times as many white men as women (Basow, 1992 p. 159), or children’s programming, in which males outnumber females by two to one, or newscasts, in which women make up 16% of newscasters and in which stories about men are included 10 MEDIA’S MISREPRESENTATION OF AMERICAN LIFEThe media present a distorted version of cultural life in our country. According to media portrayals: White males make up two-thirds of the population. The women are less in number, perhaps because fewer than 10% live beyond 35. Those who do, like t heir younger and male counterparts, are nearly all white and heterosexual. In addition to being young, the majority of women are beautiful, very thin, passive, and primarily concerned with relationships and getting rings out of collars and commodes. There are a few bad, bitchy women, and they are not so pretty, not so subordinate, and not so caring as the good women.Most of the bad ones work outside of the home, which is probably why they are hardened and undesirable. The more powerful, ambitious men occupy themselves with important business deals, exciting adventures, and rescuing dependent females, whom they often then assault sexually. From Gendered Lives: Communication, Gender, and Culture by Julie T. Wood, Chapter 9, pp. 231-244. 0 1994. Reprinted with permission of Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Thomson Learning. Fax 800-730-2215. 31 T LI Y IIYC~ WI I H MEDIA Other myths about what is standard are similarly fortified by communication in media.Minorities are even less visi ble than women, with African-Americans appearing only rarely (Gray, 1986; Stroman, 1989) and other ethnic minorities being virtually nonexistent. In children’s programming when African-Americans do appear, almost invariably they appear in supporting roles rather than as main characters (O’Connor, 1989). While more African-Americans are appearing in prime-time television, they are too often cast in stereotypical roles. In the 1992 season, for instance, 12 of the 74 series on commercial networks included large African-American casts, yet most featured them in stereotypical roles.Black men are presented as lazy and unable to handle authority as lecherous, and/or as unlawful, while females are portrayed as domineering or as sex objects (â€Å"Sights Sounds, and Stereotypes,† 1992). Writing in 1993, David Evans (1993, p. 10) criticized television for stereotyping black males as athletes and entertainers. These roles wrote Evans, mislead young black male viewers in& t hinking success â€Å"is only a dribble or dance step away† and blind them to other, more realistic ambitions. &panics and Asians are nearly absent, and when they are presented it is usually as villains or criminals (Lichter, Lichter, Rothman, & Amundson, 1987). Also under-represented is the single fastest growing we are aging so that people over 60 make up a major part of our population; within this group, women significantly outnumber men (Wood, 1993~). Older people not only are under-represented in media but also are represented inaccurately In contrast to demographic realities, media consistently show fewer older women than men, presumably because our culture worships youth and beauty in women.Further, elderly individuals are frequently portrayed as sick, dependent, fumbling and passive, images not borne out in real life. Distirted depictions of older people and especially older women in media, however, can delude us into thinking they are a small, sickly, and unimportant part of our population. group of Americans- older people. As a country, Stereotypical Portrayals of Women and Men In general, media continue to present both women and men in stereotyped ways that limit our perceptions of human possibilities.Typically men are portrayed as active, adventurous, powerful, sexually aggressive and largely uninvolved in human relationships. Just as’ consistent with cultural views of gender are depictions of women as sex objects who are usually young, thin beautiful, passive, dependent, and often incompetent and dumb. Female characters devote their primary energies to improving their appearances and taking care of homes and people. Because media pervade our lives, the ways they misrepresent genders may distort how we see ourselves and what we perceive as normal and desirable for men and women.Stereotypical portrayals of men. According to J. A. Doyle (1989, p. ill), whose research focuses on masculinity children’s television typically shows ma les as â€Å"aggressive, dominant, and engaged in exciting activities from which they receive rewards from others for their ‘masculine’ accomplishments. † Relatedly, recent studies reveal that the majority of men on prime-time television are independent, aggressive, and in charge (McCauley Thangavelu, & Rozin, 1988). Television programming foi all ages disproportionately depicts men as serious confident, competent, owerful, and in high-status ‘positions. Gentleness in men, which was briefly evident in the 197Os, has receded as established male characters are redrawn to be more tough and distanced from others (Bayer, 1986). Highly popular films such as LethaI Weapon, Predator, Days of Thunder, Total Recall, Robocop Die Hard, and Die Harder star men who embody the The lack of women in the media is paralleled by the scarcity of women in charge of media. Only about 5% of television writers, executives, and producers are women (Lichter, Lichter, & Rothman, 1986) .Ironically, while twothirds of journalism graduates are women, they make up less than 2% of those in corporate management of newspapers and only about 5% of newspaper publishers (â€Å"Women in Media,† 1988). Female film directors are even rnonz-scarce, as are executives in charge of MTV It is probably not coincidental that so few women are behind the scenes of an industry that so consistently portrays women negatively Some media analysts (Mills 1988) believe that if more women had positions o; authority at executive levels, media would offer more positive portrayals of women. tereotype of extreme masculinity Media, then reinforce long-standing cultural ideals of masculinity:’ Men are presented as hard, tough, independent, sexually aggressive, unafraid, violent, totally in control of all emotions, and-above all-in no way feminine. Equally interesting is how males are not presented. J. D. Brown and K. Campbell (1986) report that men are seldom shown doing housework. Do yle (1989) notes that boys and men are rarely presented caring for others. B.Horovitz (1989) points out they are typically represented as uninterested in and incompetent at homemaking, cooking, and child care. Each season’s new ads for cooking and cleaning supplies include several that caricature men as incompetent buffoons, who are klutzes in the kitchen and no better at taking care of children. While children’s books have made a limited attempt to depict women engaged in activities outside of the home there has been little parallel effort to show men involbed in family and home life. When someone is shown taking care of a child , ‘t is usually the mother, not the father. ’ This perpetuates a negative stereotype of men as uncaring and uninvolved in family life. Stereotypical portrayals of women. Media’s images of women also reflect cultural stereotypes that depart markedly from reality As we have already seen, girls and 7. Gendered Media JILL I rem ember when I was little I used to read books from the boys’ section of the library because they were more interesting. Boys did the fun stuff and the exciting things. My mother kept trying to get me to read girls’ books, but I just couldn’t get into them.Why can’t stories about girls be full of adventure and bravery? I know when I’m a mother, I want any daughters of mine to understand that excitement isn’t just for boys. women are dramatically underrepresented. In prime- time television in 1987, fully two-thirds of the speaking parts were for men. Women are portrayed as significantly younger and thinner than women in the population as a whole, and most are depicted as passive, dependent on men, and enmeshed in relationships or housework (Davis, 1990). The requirements of youth and eauty in women even influence news shows, where female newscasters are expected to be younger, more physically attractive, and less outspoken than males (Craft, 19 88; Sanders & Rock, 1988). Despite educators’ criticism of self-fulfilling prophecies that discourage girls from success in math and science, that stereotype was dramatically reiterated in 1992 when Mattel offered a new talking Barbie doll. What did she say? â€Å"Math class is tough,† a message that reinforces the stereotype that women cannot do math (â€Å"Mattel Offers Trade-In,† 1992).From children’s programming in which the few existing female characters typically spend their time watching males do things (Feldman & Brown, 1984; Woodman, 1991), to MTV, which routinely pictures women satisfying men’s sexual fantasies (Pareles, 1990; Texier, 1990), media reiterate the cultural image of women as dependent, ornamental objects whose primary functions are to look good, please men, and stay quietly on the periphery of life. Media have created two images of women: good women and bad ones. These polar opposites are often juxtaposed against each other t o dramatize differences in the consequences that befall good and bad women.Good women are pretty, deferential, and focused on home, family and caring for others. Subordinate to men, they are usually cast as victims, angels, martyrs, and loyal wives and helpmates. Occasionally, women who depart from traditional roles are portrayed positively, but this is done either by making their career lives invisible, as with Claire Huxtable, or by softening and feminizing working women to make them more consistent with traditional views of fernininity For instance, in the original script, Cagney and Lacey were conceived as strong, mature, independent women who took their work seriously and did it well.It took 6 years for writers Barbara Corday and Barbara Avedon to sell the script to CBS, and even then they had to agree to subdue Cagney’s and Lacey’s abilities to placate producer Barney Rosenzweig, who complained, â€Å"These women aren’t soft enough. These women arenâ€⠄¢t feminine enough† (Faludi, 1991, p. 150). While female viewers wrote thousands of letters praising the show, male executives at CBS continued to force writers to make the characters softer, more tender, and less sure of themselves (Faludi, 1991, p. 152).The remaking of Cagney and Lacey illustrates the media’s bias in favor of women who are traditionally feminine and who are not too able, too powerful, or too confident. The rule seems to be that a woman may be strong and successful if and only if she also exemplifies traditional stereotypes of femininity-subservience, passivity, beauty, and an identity linked to one or more men. The other image of women the media offer us is the evil sister of the good homebody Versions of this image are the witch, bitch, whore, or nonwoman, who is represented as hard, cold, aggressive-all of the things a good woman is not supposed to be.Exemplifying the evil woman is Alex in Fatal Attraction, which grossed more than $100 million in i ts first four months (Faludi, 1991, p. 113). Yet Alex was only an extreme version of how bad women are generally portrayed. In children’s literature, we encounter witches and mean stepmothers as villains, with beautiful and passive females like Snow White and Sleeping Beauty as their good counterparts. Prime-time television favorably portrays pretQ nurturing, other-focused women, such as Claire Huxtable on â€Å"The Cosby Show,† whose career as an attorney never entered storylines as much as her engagement in family matters.Hope in â€Å"Thirtysomething† is an angel, committed to husband Michael and daughter Janey. In the biographies written for each of the characters when the show was in development, all male characters were defined in terms of their career goals, beliefs, and activities. Hope’s biography consisted of one line: â€Å"Hope is married to Michael† (Faludi, 1991, p. 162). Hope epitomizes the traditional woman, so much so in fact that in one episode she refers to herself as June Cleaver and calls Michael â€Å"Ward,† thus reprising the traditional family of the 1950s as personified in â€Å"Leave It to Beaver† (Faludi, 1991, p. 61). Meanwhile, prime-time typically represents ambitious, independent women as lonely, embittered spinsters who are counterpoints to â€Å"good† women. Stereotypical Images of Relationships Between Men and Women Given media’s stereotypical portrayals of women and men, we shouldn’t be surprised to find that relationships between women and men are similarly depicted in ways that reinforce stereotypes. Four themes demonstrate how media reflect and promote traditional arrangements between the sexes. Women’s dependence/men’s independence.Walt Disney’s award-winning animated film The Little Mermaid vividly embodies females’ dependence on males for identity. In this feature film, the mermaid quite literally 33 1 +3 LIVING WITH MEDIA I PAUL I wouldn’t say this around anyone, but personally I’d be glad if the media let up a little on us guys. I watch those guys in films and on TV, and I just feel inadequate. I mean, I’m healthy and I look okay, and I’ll probably make a decent salary when I graduate. But I am no stud; I can’t beat up three guys at once women don’t fall dead at my feet; I doubt I’ll make i million bucks; and I don’t have muscles that ripple.Every time I go to a film, I leave feeling like a wimp. How can any of us guys measure up to what’s on the screen? I gives up her identity as a mermaid in order to become acceptable to her human lover. In this children’s story, we see a particularly obvious illustration of the asymmetrical relationship between women and men that is more subtly conveyed in other media productions. Even the Smurfs, formless little beings who have no obvious sex, reflect the male-female, dominant-submissive roles .The female smurf, unlike her male companions who have names, is called only Smurfette, making her sole identity a diminutive relation to male smurfs. The male dominance/female subservience pattern that permeates mediated representations of relationships is no accident. Beginning in 1991, television executives deliberately and consciously adopted a policy of having dominant male characters in all Saturday morning children’s programming (Carter, 1991). Women, as well as minorities, are cast in support roles rather than leading ones in both children’s shows and the commercials interspersed within them (O’Connor 1989).Analyses of MTV revealed that it portrays females as passive and waiting for men’s attention, while males are shown ignoring, exploiting or directing women (Brown, Campbell, & Fisher, 1986). In rap music videos, where African-American men and women star men dominate women, whose primary role is as objects of male desires (Pareles, 1990; Texier, 1990). News programs that have male and female hosts routinely cast the female as deferential to her male colleague (Craft, 1988; Sanders & Rock, 1988). Commercials, too, manifest power cues that echo the male dominance/female subservience pattern.For instance, men are usually shown positioned above women, and women are more frequently pictured in varying degrees of undress (Masse & Rosenblum 1988; N&o, Hill, Gelbein, & Clark, 1988). Such nonverl bal cues represent women as vulnerable and more submissive while men stay in control. In a brief departure from this pattern, films and television beginning in the 1970s responded to the second wave of feminism by showing women who were independent without being hard, embittered, or without close relationships. Films such as Alice Doesn’t Live Here Anymore, Up the Sandbox, The Turning Point, Diary of a Mad 34Housewife, and An Unmarried Woman offered realistic portraits of women who sought and found their awn voices independent of me n. Judy Davis’s film, My BriZZiant Career, particularly embodied this focus by telling the story of a woman who chooses work over marriage. During this period, television followed suit, offering viewers prime-time fare such as â€Å"Maude† and â€Å"The Mary Tyler Moore Show,† which starred women who were able and achieving in their own rights. â€Å"One Day at a Time rr which premiered in 1974, was the first prime-time program about a divorced woman.By the 198Os, however, traditionally gendered arrangements resurged as the backlash movement against feminism was embraced by media (Haskell, 1988; Maslin 1990). Thus, film fare in the 1980s included Pretfy Woman’ the story of a prostitute who becomes a good woman when she is saved from her evil ways by a rigidly stereotypical man, complete with millions to prove his success Meanwhile, Tie Me Up, Tie Me Down trivialized abuse of women and underlined women’s dependence on men with a story of a woman wh o is bound by a man and colludes in sustaining her bondage.Crossing Delancey showed successful careerist Amy Irving talked into believing she needs a man to be complete, a theme reprised by Cher in Moonstruck. Television, too, cooperated in returning women to their traditional roles with characters like Hope in â€Å"Thirtysomething† who minded house and baby as an ultratraditional wife, and even Murphy Brown found her career wasn’t enough and had a baby Against her protests, Cybill Shepherd, who played Maddie in â€Å"Moonlighting† was forced to marry briefly on screen which Susan Faludi (1991, p. 57) refers to as part of a â€Å"campaign to cow this independent female figure. † Popular music added its voice with hit songs like â€Å"Having My Baby,† which glorified a woman who defined herself by motherhood and her relationship to a man. The point is not that having babies or committing to relationships is JOANNE I’d like to know who dreams up those commercials that show men as unable to boil water or run a vacuum. I’d like to tell them they’re creating monsters. My boyfriend and I agreed to split all chores equally when we moved in together. Ha! Fat chance of that. He does zilch.When I get on his case, he reminds me of what happened when the father on some show had to take over housework and practically demolished the kitchen. Then he grins and says, â€Å"Now, you wouldn’t want that, would you? † Or worse yet, he throws up Hope or one of the other women on W, and asks me why I can’t be as sweet and supportive as she is. It’s like the junk on television gives him blanket license for doing nothing. 7. Gendered Medi wrong; rather, it is that media virtually require this of women in order to present them positively Media define a very narrow range for womanhood.Joining the campaign to restore traditional dominantsubordinate patterns of male-female relationships were magazines, w hich reinvigorated their focus on women’s role as the helpmate and supporter of husbands and families (Peirce, 1990). In 1988, that staple of Americana Good Housekeeping, did its part to revive women’s tradi: tional roles with a full-page ad (â€Å"The Best in the House n 1988) for its new demographic edition marketed to’ â€Å"the new traditionalist woman. A month later, the magazine followed this up with a second full-page ad in national newspapers that saluted the â€Å"new traditionalist woman m with this copy (â€Å"The New Traditionalist,† 1988): â€Å"She his made her commitment. Her mission: create a more meaningful life for herself and her family She is the New Traditionalist-a contemporary woman who finds her fulfillment in traditional values. † The long-standing dominant-submissive model for male-female relationships was largely restored in the 1980s. With only rare exceptions, women are still portrayed as dependent on men and subserv ient to them.As B. Lott (1989, p. 64) points out, it is women who â€Å"do the laundry and are secretaries to men who own companies. † Men’s authority/women’s incompetence. A second recurrent theme in media representations of relationships is that men are the competent authorities who save women from their incompetence. Children’s literature vividly implements this motif by casting females as helpless and males as coming to their rescue. Sleeping Beauty’s resurrection depends on Prince Charming’s kiss, a theme that appears in the increasingly popular gothic romance novels for adults (Modleski, 1982).One of the most pervasive ways in which media define males as authorities is in commercials. Women are routinely shown anguishing over dirty floors and bathroom fixtures only to be relieved of their distress when Mr. Clean shows up to tell them how to keep their homes spotless. Even when commercials are aimed at women selling products intended fo r them, up to 90% of the tim: a man’s voice is used to explain the value of what is being sold (Basow, 1992, p. 161; Bretl & Cantor 1988). using male voice-overs reinforces the cultural v&w that men are authorities and women depend on men to tell them what to do.Television further communicates the message that men are authorities and women are not. One means of doing this is sheer numbers. As we have seen, men vastly outnumber women in television programming. In addition, the dominance of men as news anchors who inform us of happenings in the world underlines their authority (â€Å"Study Reports Sex Bias,† 1989). Prime-time television contributes to this image by showing women who need to be rescued by men and by presenting women as incompetent more than twice as often as men (Bayer, 1986; Lichter et al. , 1986).Consider the characters in â€Å"The Jetsons,† an animate, television series set in the future. Daughter Judy Jetso is constantly complaining and waitin g for others to he1 her, using ploys of helplessness and flattery to win men’ attention. The Rescuers, a popular animated video of the 199Os, features Miss Bianca (whose voice is that of Zs: Zsa Gabon fittingly enough), who splits her time evenl) between being in trouble and being grateful to mah characters for rescuing her. These stereotypical repre sentations of males and females reinforce a number o; harmful beliefs.They suggest, first, that men are more competent than women. Compounding this is the message that a woman’s power lies in her looks and conventional femininity since that is how females from Sleeping Beauty to Judy Jetson get males to assist them with their dilemmas (McCauley Thangavelu, & Rozin 1988). Third, these stereotypes underline the requiremen; that men must perform, succeed, and conquer in order to be worthy Women as primary caregiverslmen as breadwinners. A third perennial theme in media is that women are caregivers and men are providers.Since the backlash of the 198Os, in fact, this gendered arrangement has been promulgated with renewed vigor. Once again, as in the 195Os, we see women devoting themselves to getting rings off of collars, gray out of their hair, and meats on the table. Corresponding to this is the restatement of men’s inability in domestic and nurturing roles. Horovitz (1989), for instance, reports that in commercials men are regularly the butt of jokes for their ignorance about nutrition, child care, and housework When media portray women who work outside of the home, their career lives typicallyFreceive little or no attention.Although these characters have titles such as lawyer or doctor, they are shown predominantly in their roles as homemakers, mothers, and wives. We see them involved in caring conversations with family and friends and doing things for others, all of which never seem to conflict with their professional responsibilities. This has the potential to cultivate unrealistic expectation s of being Isuperwoman,† who does it all without her getting a hair out of place or being late to a conference. Magazines play a key role in promoting pleasing others as a primary focus of women’s lives. K.Peirce’s (1990) study found that magazines aimed at women stress looking good and doing things to please others. Thus, advertising tells women how to be â€Å"me, only better† by dyeing their hair to look younger; how to lose weight so â€Å"you’ll still be attractive to him†; and how to prepare gourmet meals so â€Å"he’s always glad to come home. † Constantly these advertisements emphasize pleasing others, especially men, as central to being a woman, and the message is fortified with the thinly veiled warning that if a woman fails to look good and please, her man might leave (Rakow, 1992).There is a second, less known way in which advertisements contribute to stereotypes of women as focused 1 + LIVING WITH MEDIA on others an d men as focused on work. Writing in 1990, Gloria Steinem, editor of Ms. , revealed that advertisers control some to most of the content in magazines. In exchange for placing an ad, a company receives â€Å"complimentary copy† which is one or more articles that increase the market appeal of its product.So a soup company that takes out an ad might be given a three-page story on how to prepare meals using that brand of soup; likewise, an ad for hair coloring products might be accompanied by interviews with famous women who choose to dye their hair. Thus, the message of advertisers is multiplied by magazine content, which readers often mistakenly assume is ,independent of advertising. Advertisers support media, and they exert a powerful influence on what is presented. To understand the prevalence of traditional gender roles in programming, magazine copy, and other media, we need only ask what is in the best interests of advertisers.They want to sponsor shows that create or expan d markets for their products. Media images of women as sex objects, devoted homemakers, and mothers buttress the very roles in which the majority of consuming takes place. To live up to these images, women have to buy cosmetics and other personal care products, diet aids, food, household cleaners, utensils and appliances, clothes and toys for children, and so on. In short, it is in advertisers’ interests to support programming and copy that feature women in traditional roles.In a recent analysis, Lana Rakow (1992) demonstrated that much advertising is oppressive to women and is very difficult to resist, even when one is a committed feminist. Women’s role in the home and men’s role outside of it are reinforced by newspapers and news programming. Both emphasize men’s independent activities and, in fact, define news almost entirely as stories about and by men (â€Å"Study Reports Sex Bias,† 1989). Stories about men focus on work and/or their achieveme nts (Luebke, 1989), reiterating the cultural message that men are supposed to do, perform.Meanwhile the few stories about women almost invariably focus on their roles as wives, mothers, and homemakers (â€Å"Study Reports Sex Bias,† 1989). Even stories about women who are in the news because of achievements and professional activities typically dwell on marriage, family life, and other aspects of women’s traditional role (Foreit et al. , 1980). Women as victims and sex objectslmen as aggressors. A final theme in mediated representations of relationships between women and men is representation of women as subject to men’s sexual desires.The irony of this representation is that the very qualities women are encouraged to develop (beauty, sexiness, passivity, and powerlessness) in order to meet cultural ideals of femininity contribute to their victimization. Also, the qualities that men are urged to exemplify (aggressiveness, dominance, sexuality, and strength) are identical to those linked to abuse of women. It is no coincidence that all but one of the women nominated for Best Actress in the 36 1988 Academy Awards played a victim (Faludi, 1991, p. 138). Women are portrayed alternatively either as decorative objects, who must attract a man o be valuable, or as victims of men’s sexual impulses. Either way, women are defined by their bodies and how men treat them. Their independent identities and endeavors are irrelevant to how they are represented in media, and their abilities to resist exploitation by others are obscured. This theme, which was somewhat toned down during the 197Os, returned with vigor in the 1980s as the backlash permeated media. According to S. A. Basow (1992, p. 160), since 1987 there has been a â€Å"resurgence of male prominence, pretty female sidekicks, female homemakers. † Advertising in magazines also communicates the message that women are sexual objects.While men are seldom pictured nude or even partially unclothed, women habitually are. Advertisements for makeup, colognes, hair products, and clothes often show women attracting men because they got the right products and made themselves irresistible. Stars on prime-time and films, who are beautiful and dangerously thin, perpetuate the idea that women must literally starve themselves to death to win men’s interest (Silverstein et al. , 1986). Perhaps the most glaring examples of portrayals of women as sex objects and men as sexual aggressors occur in music videos as shown on MTV and many other stations.Typically, females are shown dancing provocatively in scant and/or revealing clothing as they try to gain men’s attention (Texier, 1990). Frequently, men are seen coercing women into sexual activities and/or physically abusing them. Violence against women is also condoned in many recent films. R. Warshaw (1991) reported that cinematic presentations of rapes, especially acquaintance rapes, are not presented as power-motiva ted violations of women but rather as strictly sexual encounters.Similarly, others (Cowan, Lee, Levy, & Snyder, 1988; Cowan & O’Brien, 1990) have found that male dominance and sexual exploitation of women are themes in virtually all R-and X-rated films, which almost anyone may now rent for home viewing. These media images carry to extremes long-standing cultural views of masculinity as aggressive and femininity as passive. They also make violence seem sexy (D. Russell, 1993). In so doing, they recreate these limited and limiting perceptions in the thinking of another generation of women and men. In sum, we have identified basic stereotypes and relationships between the two.IndividualIy and in combination these images sustain and reinforce socially constructed views of the genders, views that have restricted both men and women and that appear to legitimize destructive behaviors ranging from anorexia to battering. Later in this chapter, we will probe more closely how media vers ions of gender are linked to problems such as these. . . . 7. Gendered Media pathologizing the Human Body One of the most damaging consequences of media’s images of women and men is that these images encourage us to perceive normal bodies and normal physical functions as problems.It’s understandable to wish we weighed a little more or less, had better developed muscles, and never had pimples or cramps. What is neither reasonable nor healthy, however, is to regard healthy, functional bodies as abnormal and unacceptable. Yet this is precisely the negative self-image cultivated by media portrayals of women and men. Because sex sells products (Muro, 1989), sexual and erotic images are the single most prominent characteristic of advertising (Courtney & Whipple, 1983).Further, advertising is increasingly objectifying men, which probably accounts for the rise in men’s weight training and cosmetic surgery Media, and especially advertising, are equal opportunity dehumani zers of both sexes. Not only do media induce us to think we should measure up to artificial standards, but they encourage us to see normal bodies and bodily functions as pathologies. A good example is the media’s construction of premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Historically, PMS has not been a problem, but recently it has been declared a disease (Richmond-Abbott, 1992).In fact, a good deal of research (Parlee, 1973, 1987) indicates that PMS affected very few women in earlier eras. After the war, when women were no longer needed in the work force, opinion changed and the term premenstrual tension was coined (Greene & Dalton, 1953) and used to define women as inferior employees. In 1964, only one article on PMS appeared; in 1988-1989, a total of 425 were published (Tavris, 1992, p. 140). Drug companies funded research and publicity since selling PMS meant selling their remedies for the newly created problem.Behind the hoopla, however, there was and is little evidence to support the currently widespread belief that PMS is a serious problem for a significant portion of the female population. Facts aside, the myth has caught on, carrying in its wake many women and men who now perceive normal monthly changes as abnormal and as making women unfit for positions of leadership and authority Another consequence of defining PMS as a serious problem most women suffer is that it leads to labeling women in general as deviant and unreliable (Unger & Crawford, 1992), an image that fortifies long-held biases against women.Menopause is similiarly pathologized. Carol Tavris (1992, p. 159) notes that books describe menopause â€Å"in terms of deprivation, deficiency, loss, shedding, and sloughing† language that defines a normal process as negative. Like menstruation, menopause is represented as abnormalcy and disease, an image that probably contributes to the negative attitudes toward it in America. The cover of the May 25, 1992, Newsweek featured an abstract drawing of a tree in the shape of a woman’s head. The tree was stripped of all leaves, making it drab and barren.Across the picture was the cover-story headline â€Å"Menopause. † From first glance, menopause was represented negatively-as desolate and unfruitful. The article ‘focused primarily on the problems and losses of menopause. Only toward the end did readers find reports from anthropologists, whose cross-cultural research revealed that in many cultures menopause is not an issue or is viewed positively Women in Mayan villages and the Greek island of Evia do not understand questions about . hot flashes and depression, which are symptoms often associated with menopause in Western societies (â€Å"Menopause,† 1992, p. 7). These are not part of their experience in cultures that do not define a normal change in women as a pathology Because Western countries, especially America, stigmatize menopause and define it as â€Å"the end of womanhood,† Western women a re likely to feel distressed and unproductive about the cessation of menstruation (Greer, 1992). Advertising is very effective in convincing us that we need products to solve problems we are unaware of until some clever public relations campaign persuades us that something natural about us is really unnatural and unacceptable.Media have convinced millions of American women that what every medical source considers â€Å"normal body weight† is really abnormal and cause for severe dieting (Wolf, 1991). Similarly, gray hair, which naturally develops with age, is now something all of us, especially women, are supposed to cover up. Facial lines, which indicate a person has lived a life and accumulated experiences, can be removed so that we look younger-a prime goal in a culture that glorifies youth (Greer, 1992).Body hair is another interesting case of media’s convincing us that something normal is really abnormal. Beginning in 1915, a sustained marketing campaign informed w omen that underarm hair was unsightly and socially incorrect. (The campaign against leg hair came later. ) Harper’s Bazaar, an upscale magazine, launched the crusade against underarm hair with a photograph of a woman whose raised arms revealed clean-shaven armpits. Underneath the photograph was this caption: â€Å"Summer dress and modem dancing combine to make necessary the removal of objectionable hair† (Adams, 1991)†¦Within a few years, ads promoting removal of underarm hair appeared in most women’s magazines, and by 1922, razors and depilatories were firmly ensconced in middle America as evidenced by their inclusion in the women’s section of the Sears Roebuck catalog. Media efforts to pathologize natural physiology can be very serious. As we have seen in prior chapters, the emphasis on excessive thinness contributes to severe and potentially lethal dieting, especially in Caucasian women (Spitzack, 1993).Nonetheless, the top female models in 1993 a re skeletal, more so than in recent years (Leland & Leonard, 1993). Many women’s natural breast size exceeded the cultural ideal in the 1960s when thin, angular bodies were represented as ideal. Thus, breast reduction surgeries rose. By the 198Os, cultural standards changed 37 1 6 LIVING WITH MEDIA to define large breasts as the feminine ideal. Consequently, breast augmentation surgeries accelerated, and fully 80% of implants were for cosmetic reasons (â€Å"The. Implant Circus,† 1992).In an effort to meet the cultural standards of beautiful bodies, many women suffered unnecessary surgery, which led to disfigurement, loss of feeling, and sometimes death for women when silicone implants were later linked to fatal conditions. Implicitlp media argue that our natural state is abnormal and objectionable, a premise that is essential to sell products and advice for improving ourselves. Accepting media messages about our bodies and ourselves, however, is not inevitable: We can reflect on the messages and resist those that are inappropriate and/or harmful.We would probably all be considerably happier and healthier if we became more critical in analyzing media’s communication about how we should look, be, and act. Normalizing Violence Against Women harmful, while sexually violent materials appear to be (Donnerstein, Linz, & Penrod, 1987). Pornographic films are a big business, outnumbering other films by 3 to 1 and grossing over $365 million a year in the United States alone (Wolf, 1991). The primary themes characteristic of pornography as a genre are extremes of those in media generally: sex, violence, and domination of one person by another, usually women by men (Basow, 1992, p. 17). More than 80% of X-rated films in one study included scenes in which one or more men dominate and exploit one or more women; within these films, three-fourths portray physical aggression against women, and fully half explicitly depict rape (Cowan et al. , 1988). That these are linked to viewers’ MYTHS Myth Rape is a sexual act that resuits from sexual urges. Rapists are abnormal. AND FACTS Fact ABOUT RAPE Since we have seen that media positively portray aggression in males and passivity in females, it’s important to ask whether media messages contribute to abuse of and violence against women.There is by now fairly convincing evidence (Hansen & Hansen, 1988) that exposure to sexual violence through media is linked to greater tolerance, or even approval, of violence. For instance, I? Dieter (1989) found a strong relationship between females’ viewing of sexually violent MTV and their acceptance of sexual violence as part of â€Å"normal† relationships. He reasoned that the more they observe positive portrayals of sexual violence, the more likely women are to perceive this as natural in relationships with men and the less likely they are to object to violence or to defend themselves from it.In short, Dieter suggests that heavy exposure to media tiolence within relationships tends to normalize it, so that abuse and violence are considered natural parts of love and sex. Dieter’s study demonstrates a direct link between sexual aggression and one popular form of media, MTV. Research on pornography further corroborates connections between exposure to portrayals of violence against women and willingness to engage in or accept it in one’s own relationships (Russell, 1993). Before we discuss this research, however, we need to clarify what we will mean by the term pornography, since defining it is a matter of some controversy.Pornography is not simply sexually explicit material. To distinguish pornography from erotica, we might focus on mutual agreement and mutual benefit. If we use these criteria, pornography may be defined as materials that favorably show subordination and degradation of a person such as presenting sadistic behaviors as pleasurable, brutalizing and pain as enjoyable, and forc ed sex or abuse as positive. Erotica, on the other hand, depicts consensual sexual activities that are sought by and pleasurable to all parties involved (MacKinnon, 1987).These distinctions are important, since it has been well established that graphic sexual material itself is not 38 Rape is an aggressive act used to dominate another. Rapists have not been shown to differ from nonrapists in personality, psychology, adjustment, or involvment in interpersonal relationships. Eighty percent to 90% of rapes are committed by a person known to the victim (Allgeier, 1987). Most rapes occur between strangers. Most rapists are African-Ameri- More than three-fourths of all can men, and most victims rapes occur within races, not are Caucasian women. between races.This myth reflects racism. The way a woman dresses affects the likelihood she will be raped. The majority-up to 90%-of rapes are planned in advance and without knowledge of how the victim will dress (Scully, 1990). The majority of rap es are never reported (Koss, Cidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987). Less than 10% of rape reports are judged false, the same as for other violent crimes. The incidence of rape varies across cultures. It is highest in societies with ideologies of male dominance and a disregard for nature; it is lowest in cultures that respect women and feminine values Griffin 1981).False reports of rapes are frequent. Rape is a universal problem own tendencies to engage in sexual violence is no longer disputable. According to recent research (Demare, Briere, & Lips, 1988; Donnerstein et al. , 1987; Malamuth & Briere, 1986), viewing sexually violent material tends to in- 7. Gendered Media crease men’s beliefs in rape myths, raises the likelihood thnt men will admit they might themselves commit rape, and desensitizes men to rape, thereby making forced sex more acceptable to them.This research suggests that repeated exposure to pornography influences how men think about rape by transforming it from an unac ceptable behavior with which they do not identify into one they find acceptable and enticing. Not surprisingly, the single best predictor of rape is the circulation of pomographic materials that glorify sexual force and exploitation (Baron & Straus, 1989). This is alarming when we realize that 18 million men buy a total of 165 different pornographic magazines every month in the United States (Wolf, 1991, p. 79).It is well documented that the incidence of reported rape is rising and that an increasing number of men regard forced sex as acceptable (Brownmiller, 1993; Soeken & Danirosch, 1986). Studies of men (Allgeier, 1987; Koss & Dinero, 1988; Koss, Dinero, Seibel, & Cox, 1988; Koss Gidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987; Lisak & Roth, 1988) hav: produced shocking findings: While the majority of college men report not having raped anyone, a stunning 50% admit they have coerced, manipulated, or pressured a woman to have sex or have had sex with her after getting her drunk; 1 in 12 men at some co lleges has engaged in behaviors meeting the legal definition of rape r attempted rape; over 80% of men who admitted to acts that meet the definition of rape did not believe they had committed rape; and fully one-third of college men said they would commit rape if they believed nobody would find out. Contrary to popular belief, we also know that men who do commit rape are not psychologically abnormal. They are indistinguishable from other men in terms of psychological adjustment and health, emotional wellbeing, heterosexual relationships, and frequency of sexual experiences (Segel-Evans, 1987).The only established difference between men who are sexually violent and men who are not is that the former have â€Å"hypermasculine† attitudes and self-concepts-their approval of male dominance and sexual rights is even stronger than that of nonrapists (Allgeier, 1987; Koss & Dinero 1988. Lisak & Roth, 1988; Wood, 1993a). The difference b&ween sexually violent men and others appears to be only a matter of degree. We also know something about women who are victims of rape and other forms of sexual violence.Between 33% and 66% of all women have been sexually abused before reaching age 18 (Clutter, 1990; Koss, 1990). The majority of college women-up to 75%-say they have been coerced into some type of unwanted sex at least once (Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987; Poppen & Segal 1988; Warshaw, 1988). A third of women who survivi *ape contemplate suicide (Koss et al. , 1988). It is also clear that the trauma of rape is not confined to the time of its actual occurrence.The feelings that accompany rape and sexual assault-fear, a sense of degradation and shame, anger, powerlessness, and depression-endure far beyond the act itself (Brownmiller, 1975; Wood 1992b 19930. Most victims of rape continue to deal v&h the emotional aftermath of rape for the rest of their lives (Marhoefer-Dvorak, Resick, Hutter, & Girelli, 1988). What causes rape, now the fastest growing violent crim e in the United States (Doyle, 1989; Soeken & Damrosch, 1986)?According to experts (Costin & Schwartz 1987; Koss & Dinero, 1988; Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski’ 1987; Scott & Tetreault, 1987; Scully, 1990), rape is not the result of psychological deviance or uncontrollable lust. Although rape involves sex, it is not motivated by sexual desire. Authorities agree that rape is an aggressive act used to dominate and show power over another person, be it a man over a woman or one man over another as in prison settings where rape is one way inmates brU1 talize one another and establish a power hierarchy (Rideau & Sinclair, 1982).Instead, mounting evidence suggests that rape is a predictable outcome of views of men, women, and relationships between the sexes that our society inculcates in members (Brownmiller, 1975. Costin & Schwartz, 1987; Scott & Tetreault, 1987; South & Felson, 1990). Particularly compelling support for the cultural basis of rape comes from cross-cultural studies (Gr iffin, 1981. Sanday, 1986), which reveal that rape is extremely rar: in cultures that value women and feminine qualities and that have ideologies that promote harmonious interdependence among humans and between them and the natural world.Rape is most common in countries, like the United States, that have ideologies of male supremacy and dominance and a disrespect of women and nature. Cultural values communicated to us by family schools, media, and other sources constantly encourage us to believe men are superior, men should dominate women, male aggression is acceptable as a means of attaining what is wanted, women are passive and should defer to men, and women are sex objects. In concert these beliefs legitimize violence and aggression agains; women.While the majority of media communication may not be pornographic, it does echo in somewhat muted forms the predominant themes of pornography: sex, violence and male domination of women. As we have seen, thesi same motifs permeate media that are part of our daily lives, which generally portray males as dominating in number, status, authority, and will. Substantial violence toward women punctuates movies, television-including children’s programming-rock music, and music videos desensitizing men and women alike to the unnatural~ ness and unacceptability of force and brutality between human beings.Thus, the research that demonstrates connections between sex-stereotypical media and acceptance of sexual violence is consistent with that showing relationships between more extreme, pornographic media and acceptance of and use of violence. . . . 39 REFERENCES Adams, C. (1991, April). The straight dope. Triangle Comic Review, p. 26. ABgeier, E. R. (1987). C oercive versus consensual sexual interactions Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. so,+. New Haven, CT: Yale Universitv press. Basow, S. A. (1992). Gender: Stereo-&& and roles (3rd ed. ). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. The best in the kwe. 1988, Oct ober 19). New York Times, p. 52~. Boyer, R J. (1986, February 16). TV turns to the hard-boiled male. New York Trmes, pp. Hl, H29. BretL D. , & Cantor, J. (1988). The portrayal of men and women in U. S. commercials: A recent content analysis and trend over 15 yeas. Sex Boron, L & Strau$ M. A. (1989). Four theories of&p in Am&can Roles, 18, 595-609. In. V. p Makosky (Ed. ), The G. Stanley Hall Lecture Series (vol. 7, pp: 7-63). Hansen, C. H. , & Hansen, R. D. (1988). How rock music videos can change what 1s seen when boy meets girl: priming stereotypic appraisaj of Social interactions.Sex Roles 19 287 316. Haskdl, M. (1988, May). Hollywood Madonnas I G s. , pp. 84, 86, 88. Horovitz, B. (1989, August 10). In TV commercials, men are often the butt of the jokes. Pkiladelpkia Inquirer, pp. 5b 6b The lmpjant circus. (1992, February 18). Wall Stieet Journal, p. A20. Koss, M. R (1990). The women’s mental health research agenda: Via Jence against women, American Psychologist 45 374-380 Koss, M. p, & . Dinero, T. E. (1988). predictors of sexual’aggression among a national sample of male college students In V f Qu&ey & R. Orentky (Eds. ), Human sexual aggression (pp. 33-;47). New York: Academy of Sciences. Koss, M. R, Dinero, T. 5. , Seibel C A & C ox, S. L. (1988). Stranger and acquaintance rape: Are there dkerences in the victim’s expeKOS% f†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ. p, Gidycz, C. J. , Wisniewski, N. (;987). ‘The scope of rape. Incrdence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a natronal sample of higher education students. Journal of Consulting Lekmd, J. , &-Leonard, E. (1993 , Febâ€Å"ary 1). Back to Twiggy. Nerusrueek, . PP. 64-65. Lrchter, S. R. , Lichter, L. S. , & Rothman, S. (1986, September/October) Prom LUCY to J-acey: ‘TV’s dream girls.Public Opinion, Pp. 16-19. ’ Lichter, S. R. , Lichter. L. S. , Rothman, S. , & Amundson, D. (1987, July/August). Prime-time prejudice: TV’s images of blacks and uspam cs. Pubhc Opinion, pp. 13-18. Lisak, D. , & Roth, S. (1988). Motivational factors in nonincarcerated sexvauy aggressive men. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 55, 796-802. Lo& B. (1989). Sexist discrimination as distancing behavior B bebe tdeViSiOn. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 13, 841-358: MacKimm, C. A. (W7). Feminism unmodified: Discourses on iife and h%? Cambridge, MA: Harvard University press. Malamuth, N.M. , & B nere,. J. (1986). Sexual violence in the media: . Indirect effects on aggressron against women. Journal of Social Issues, 42, 75-92. . Marhoefer-Dvorak, S. , Res& I? , Hutter, C. , & GireBi, S. (1988). Singleversus multiple-incident rape victims: A comparison of psychologjcfl reactions to rape. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 3, 145-160. Mash J. (19% June 17). Bimbos embody retro rage. NW York Times, pp. H13, H14. Masse, M. A. , & Rosenblum, K (1988). Mal e and female created they them: The depiction of gender in the advertising of traditional women s and men’s magazine’s.Women’s Studies International Forum, 11, 127-144. and Clinical Psychology, 55, 162170. rience? Psychology of Women Quarterly 12 1-24 Brown, J. D. , & Campbell, K (1986). Race and gender in music videos: The same beat but a different drummer. Journal of Communication, 36, 94-106. Brown, J. D. , Campbell, K. , & Fisher, L. (1986). American adolescents and music videos: Why do they watch7 Gazette 37 9-32 Brownmiller, S. (1975). Against our wills: &en , women‘and rape. Now I York Simon and Schuster. Brownmiller, S. (1993, January 4). Making female bodies the battlefield. Newsweek, p. 37.Carter, B. (19% May 1). Children’s TI! where boys are king. New York Enes, pp. Al, C18. Clutter, S. (1990, May 3). Gen d er may affect response and outrage to sex abuse. Morning Call, p. D14. Costin E, & Schwartz, N. (1987). Beliefs about rape and women’s social role% A four-nation study Journal of Interpersonal violence 2 46-56. Cov~eY, A. E -8 & WhippIe, T. W. (1983). Sex stereotyping in advertising. Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath. Cowan, G. , Lee C. , Levy, D. , & Snyder, D. (1988). Dominance and ineqvafitY ~I-I X-rated videocassettes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 12, 299-311. Cowan, G. ,. O’Brien, M. (1990). Gender and survival vs death in slasher films: A content analysis. Sex Roles, 23, 187-196. . Craft, C. (1988). TOO old, t00 ugly, and not d+rential to men An anchor p r i m a . Davis, D. M. (1990). Portrayals of women in prune-tune network television: Some demographic characteristics. Sex Roles, 23, 32. 5332. Demare, D. , Briere, J. , & Lips, I-L M. (1988). Violent pornography and self-reported likelihood of sexual aeeression. loumal of Research in Y† Pemonalify, 22, 140-153. Dieter, P (1989, Mach). Shooting her with video, drugs, bullets, and promwoman2 courageous affle against sex discrimination. R&and, CA: &. paper presented at the meeting of the Association of Women in Psycholom Newport, RI-I. D-e~ teh E. , h-z, D. , 8~ Penrod, S. (1987). The question of pornopapky: Research findings and policy implications. New York Free press. ’ Doyle, J. A. (1989). The 1 e experience (2nd ed. ). Dubuque, IA: William ma C. Brown. Evans, D. (1993, March 1). The wrong examples. Newsweek p 10 PalucK, S. (1991). Backlash: The undeclared war against Amer&an women. MatteB offers trade-m for â€Å"Teen Talk† Barbie. (1992, October 18). R&ig/r News and. Observer D A3. . McCauley, C. ‘bn&&~, K. , & Rozin, R (1988). Sex stereotyping of occupations in relation to television representations and census facts. Basic and Applied Social Psychology 9 197-212. Menopause. W2, May 25). Newsweek, pp. ‘7;-80. New York Crown. Feldman, N. S. , & Brow% E. (1984, April). Male vs. female differences in paper presented at the meeting of the Eastern Psychological AS& ciation, Bakimore, MD. (Cited in Basow, 1992. ) h-e& K. G. , Ag&T. , Bye&, yi Lame, J. , Lokey H Palmini M patter-son, M. , & Smi th, L. 11980). Sex bias in thh nzwsoaper &acment of male-centered and female-centered news sto&s. Sex Roles, 6, 475-480. ’ ’ Gary, H. (1986). T e 1 evrsron and the new black man: Black male image in prime-time Situation comedies. Media, Culture, and Society, 8, 223-242. control strategies: Whatc h’ld 191 1earn jrom Saturday morning television 1 M. % K (1988). A place in the news: From the women’s pages to the front page. New York: Dodd, Mead. Modle% T (1982). Loving with a vengeance: Mass-produced fantasies for women. New York Methuen. Mum, MI (1989, April 23). Comment: New era of eros in a&e-t&g. Mommg Call, pp. Dl, Dl6. The new kxiitionakt. (1988, November 17).New York Times, p. ~46. Wm G. N Hiu, D. E. , Gelbein, M. E. , & Clark, C. L. (1988). changes in the fa&l prominence of women and men over the last decade. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 12, 225-235 ~COMOC J. J. (198% June 6). What are comme&iaLs selling to cMMn=n? New York Times, p. 28. Pmh J- (19 % October 21). The women who talk back in rap. Nm York Emes. 1. H83. H86. op. pz~~~~9n’. The PmnenStrual syndrome. Psychological Bulletin, I Pazf. B. (1979, May). Conversational politics. Psyckology T&y, pp. Greene, IL 8~ Dalton, K (1953). The premenstrual syndrome. British Alfred Knopf.Medical Journal, I, 1007-1014. Gmc G. (1992). The change: Women, aging and menopause. New York Griffin, S. (1981). Pornography and silence: Cultures revenge against nature. New York Harper and Row. Peirce, K (1990). A feminist theoretical perspective on the socialization of h3q$e girls through henfem magazine Sex Roles 23 491-500 RakoW, L. F. (1986). Rethinking gender research communication. * in ’ ’ Journal of Communication, 36 11-28 . . Richmond-Abbott, M. (1992). & ascu 1† and jemmme: Gender roles over me the I;fe cycle. New York McGraw-Hill. 40 7. Gendered Media fideau, W. & Sinclair, B. (1982). Prison: The sexual jungle. In A. Scacco, Jr. (Ed. ), Male Rape (pp. 8-29). New York: AMS Ness. R1,ssell, D. E. H. (Ed. ). (1998). Feminist v&s on pornogruylry. Colchester, VT: Teachers College Press. Sanday, P H. (1986). Rape and the silencing of the feminine. In S. Tomaselli & R. Porter (Eds. ), Rape (pp. 84-101). Oxford, UK: Basil BlackweB. Sanders, M. , & Rock, M. (1988). Waiting for prime time: The women of television nerus. Urbana, ILz University of Illinois Press. Scott, R. , & Tetreault, L. (1987). ‘Attitudes of rapists and other violent offenders toward women.Journal of So&l Psychology, 124, 375-380. wily, D. (1990). Understr? nding‘~sexual violence; A study of convicted rap ists. Boston, MA: Unwin Hymen. Segel-Evans, K. (1987). Rape prevention and masculinity. In E Abbott (Ed. ), New men, new minds: Breaking male tradition (pp. 117-121). Freedom, CA: Crossing Press. Sights, sounds and stereotypes. (1992, October 11). Raleigh News and Olxetver. DO. Gl, GlO. S&&ein,‘$. ,’ Per&e, L. , Peterson, B. , & Kelly, 5. (1986). The ro le of the mass media in promoting a thin standard of bodilv attractive, ness for women. Se; Roles, 14, 519-532. Soeken, K. & Damrosch, S. (1986). Randomized response technique: Application to research on rape. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 119-126. South, S. J. , & Felson, R. B. (1990). The racial patterning of rape. So&Z Forces, 69, 71-93. Spitzack, C. (1998). The spectacle of anorexia nervosa. Text and Performunce Quarterly, 23, 1-21. Stroman, C. A. (1989). To be young, male and black on prime-time television. Urlnn Research Review, 22, 9-10. Study reports sex bias in news organizations. (1989, April 11). New York Times, p. C22. Tavris, C. (1992). The mismeusure of woman. New York: Simon and Schuster.Texier, C. (1990, April 22). Have women surrendered in MTV’s battle of the sexes? Nezo York Times, pp. H29, H31. Unger, H. , & Crawford, M. (1992). Women and gender: A feminist psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill. Warshaw, R. (1988). I never culled it rupe. New York Harper a nd How. Wolf, N. (1991). The beauty myth. New York: William Morrow. Women in media say careers hit â€Å"glass ceiling. † (1988, March 2). Euston Express, p. A9. Wood, J. T. (1992b). Telling our stories: Narratives as a basis for theorizing sexual harassment. Journal of AWlied Communicution Research, 4, 849-363. Wood, J.T. (1993a). Engendered relationships: Interaction, caring, power. and resuonsibiitv in close relationships. In S. Duck (Ed. ). i+oces&s in clo; relution&i~s: Contexts of clost- relationships (61. 3jl Beverly Hi&, CA: Sage. Wood, J. T. (19984). Who cares: Women, cure, and culture. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. Wood, J. T. (19930. Defining and studying sexual harassment as situated experience. In G. Krepi (Ed. ), Communication and sexual harassment in the workvluce. Cresskill, NT: Hampton Press. Woodman, 5. (1991, May). How-super are heros? Health, pp. 40, 49, 82.